Introduction to Philosophy

Block 1 Consolidation

A. The scientific world-view and human freedom

1. Many people believe that human beings excercise 'free-will' at least some of the time.

This shows in the way we hold people responsible for what they do, and balming them for doing bad things and praising them for doing good.

2. In a science-based culture, we seem committed to the idea that nothing happens without a cause (the 'Principle of Causality').

3. But this seems to imply that everything that human beings do is fixed beforehand.

4. Summary: There seems to be an incompatibility between our belief in human autonomy and the principle of causality.

B. Examples of the scientific perspective being applied to the human being and human groups

Cognitive science

Understands the brain as an information-processing device, controlling behaviour

A test for machines: The Turing Test

How could you tell if the brain was a computer? The Turing test purports to be a test of whether a machine could be said to 'think'.

Could autonomy 'emerge'?

Could what starts as a mechanism turn into something with autonomy?

Two possibilities perhaps:

· True autonomy turns out to be a myth as highly complex mechanisms mimic it successfully. (If the brain is a computer, we are not free after all.)

· True autonomy 'emerges' from high fully determined complexity. (Computers, if they get complicated enough, might get to enjoy free-will.)

Social 'Evolutionism'

1. The theory that human society or societies 'develop' or 'evolve' according to fixed laws of change.

Eg Marxism

2. Popper's criticism: change sometimes depends on the acquisition of new knowledge which necessarily cannot be predicted.

C.The attempt to reconcile freewill with determinism

The compatibilist line of argument:

By 'free' we do not mean 'lacking a cause'. What we mean by 'free' is 'not constrained'.

Plenty of actions are not constrained. Therefore plenty of actions are free.

Examples of the contrast between 'constrained and 'unconstrained' actions:

· First example: You can't hang on any longer

· Second example: the kleptomaniac magistrate

· Third example: action under duress

Argument in favour of the claim that 'free' does not mean 'uncaused'

· 'Free' is only meaningful if it is used to make a distinction.

· If 'free' meant 'uncaused', it would apply to nothing (if determinism is right).

· Therefore, 'free' cannot mean 'uncaused'.

Argument over compatibilism

Anti-compatibilist: What is important is whether a different decision could have been taken.

Compatibilist response: 'could' means 'would have if circumstances had been different'. A determinist can use 'could' in this sense (the 'hypothetical' sense of 'could')

The anti-compatibilist response: the question is whether we can choose categorically, not hypothetically.

D. Causality

1. Two broad approaches to causality - that there are 'connections' between things and events, and that there are not.

2. Some have suggested that we cannot infer from there being observable patterns in events that there are 'forces' or other 'compulsions' bringing those patterns about.

Maybe there are just patterns... Eg the pattern shown by planetary movements.

3. David Hume's argument for this:

'Connections' 'forces' or 'compulsions' are not observable when causal sequences are inspected.

When you observe billiard balls colliding, what you see is a sequence of events, but not any actual 'push' or 'force'.

One tempting conclusion: causes are not observable. David Hume's conclusion: talk of 'causes' is to be understood as talk about patterns among events.

4. A Kantian approach to causality

As we experience our world and think about it, we bring to bear a set of concepts. The principle of causality is one of these. It is true, because in this sense we make it true.

Introduction to Philosophy

Block 1 Consolidation

A. The scientific world-view and human freedom

1. Many people believe that human beings excercise 'free-will' at least some of the time.

2. In a science-based culture, we seem committed to the idea that nothing happens without a cause (the 'Principle of Causality').

3. But this seems to imply that everything that human beings do is fixed beforehand.

4. Summary: There seems to be an incompatibility between our belief in human autonomy and the principle of causality.

B. Examples of the scientific perspective being applied to the human being and human groups

Cognitive science

Understands the brain as an information-processing device, controlling behaviour

A test for machines: The Turing Test

Could autonomy 'emerge'?

Social 'Evolutionism'

1. The theory that human society or societies 'develop' or 'evolve' according to fixed laws of change.

2. Popper's criticism: change sometimes depends on the acquisition of new knowledge which necessarily cannot be predicted.

C.The attempt to reconcile freewill with determinism

The compatibilist line of argument:

Argument in favour of the claim that 'free' does not mean 'uncaused'

Argument over compatibilism

D. Causality

1. Two broad approaches to causality - that there are 'connections' between things and events, and that there are not.

2. Some have suggested that we cannot infer from there being observable patterns in events that there are 'forces' or other 'compulsions' bringing those patterns about.

3. David Hume's argument for this:

4. A Kantian approach to causality

This is at:

http://www.lancs.ac.uk/depts/philosophy/courses/100/100block1consolidation.htm

The home page for all my Phil 100 stuff is:

http://www.lancs.ac.uk/depts/philosophy/courses/100/100menu.htm

Both can be reached along the scenic route.