Derived from work in connectionism on recognition tasks and semantics, and articulated in the book The computational brain (1992) by Patricia S. Churchland and Terrence J. Sejnowski, it is the concept that single perceptual, cognitive or motor functions may be found over physically separate regions of the central nervous system, and that single regions of …
Author Archives: Brian Hopkins
Display rules
The understanding of when, where and how to control emotional expressions according to cultural expectations (see figure below). Consequently, there is a large cultural (and individual) variation in such rules (e.g., shaking the head from side-to-side to indicate ‘no’ is common, but in Greece it can be done by titling the head backward and lowering …
Disorder
A disturbance of function, structure, or both, resulting from a genetic or embryonic failure in development or from exogenous factors such as poison, trauma, or disease. See Developmental disorder, Disability, Impairment, Learning disability, Nosology, Teratogen
Displacement activities
Actions studied by ethologists that appear out of context or irrelevant to the situation, such as scratching movements or self-grooming behavior during anxiety, conflict, embarrassment, frustration or stress. Sometimes interpreted as a defence mechanism, involving motivational disinhibition, and in non-humans as an instinct. In contrast to displacement activity, there is redirected activity: actions directed away from …
Discrimination
A difference in responding resulting from differential consequences of responding in the presence of different stimuli. Given this definition, it can also be regarded as a class of experimental procedures, which together are referred to as discrimination training procedures (e.g., as in classical or operant conditioning). In such procedures, the response is reinforced in the …
Discourse analysis
A method of qualitative analysis consisting of an analysis of spoken language by members of speech community or written texts that moves beyond the study of grammar in order to try and understand how language is used, and what its effects are in particular social and cultural contexts. It regards language not just as describing …
Discriminant validity
An aspect of construct validity, in which measures of constructs that theoretically should not be related to each other are shown, in fact, not to be related to each other (i.e., you should be able to discriminate between dissimilar constructs). Together with convergent validity it provides evidence of construct validity. Thus, neither alone is sufficient …
Discipline
Its meaning and allocation to subjects has changed considerably over historical time. Whatever the meanings offered, they have never included the tools used (e.g., developmental biology studies the development of multicellular organisms using whatever tools are available). By the 18th century, and following Gottfried W. Leibniz (1646-1716) who was reputed to be the last person …
Disability
According to the International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps (World Health Organization, 2001), any restriction or lack of ability to perform an activity in a manner or within the range considered normal for a human being. As the term reflects the consequences of impairment with regard to functional performance and activity by the individual, …
Disadvantaged children
Those children who do not have all the advantages typical for other children in their society. Usually these disadvantages are the results of socio-economic factors. See Risk factors